Alchemy

Alchemy (Arab, al-kimia, a hybrid combination of Arab, al, the; and Greek, chemeia = chumeia, a mingling; O. French, alquemie), the pretended science which aimed at the transmutation of metals by means of the philosopher's stone, at the production of an elixir vitae or panacea for bodily ills, and at the discovery of an alkaliest or universal solvent. As these results were in the main to be attained by a knowledge of the intimate constitution of substances, alchemy laid the foundation of modern chemistry. It was in Alexandria towards the beginning of the third century that the theories of Greek metaphysicians, the mystic precepts of the Kabbala and of Eastern enthusiasts, and the supernatural claims of various religions became fused into a vague yet distinct system, the author of which was reputed to be Hermes Trismegistus, a fabulous Egyptian king. The professors of this secret art adopted from the first an experimental as opposed to a rationalistic method of dealing with nature, and undoubtedly stumbled upon some valuable discoveries, such as sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, oxygen gas, and certain properties of mercury. Many centuries, however, elapsed before the scientific fruits of their labours could be garnered. Zosimus, Alexander of Aphrodisia, Nemesius, the pseudo-Diogenes, and pseudo-Plato are the chief names of this new school, which linked itself on to astrology by associating the planets with the metals, and borrowed from speculative ontology the idea of four elements and four humours. From Alexandria the germs of transcendental physics were imported into Arabia and carried by the Arabs into Spain. Gebir, Avicenna, Rhazes, and Mohammed-ben-Zakaria, flourishing with many others from the eighth to the tenth centuries, spread "the science of the key" amongst European speculators, and added several new items, such as aquafortis, sal ammoniac, distillation, and the cupellation of metals to the alchemists' repertory. About the middle of the twelfth century the dream of commanding the inmost secrets of nature had taken a strong hold on the imagination of Europe, and the search for gold, hitherto a subordinate part of the alchemistic scheme, became a wide-spread curse. Side by side with Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas, Raymond Lully, Basil Valentine, Bernard of Treves, and other honourable investigators, there sprang up a host of impostors and lunatics actuated by greed for untold wealth, or more often by the prospect of duping rich patrons. Like our King John and Philip the Fair of France, Pope John XXII. and Alphonso X. of Leon and Castile dabbled in the art. But the fear of an excessive production of the precious metals, the supposed recourse to unhallowed practices, and the heretical tendencies of many adepts led everywhere to severe restrictive measures. In England, for example, a statute was in force against seekers after the philosopher's stone from 1404 to 1689. Persecution brought about the formation of secret societies, such as the Rosicrucians, and induced those engaged in such pursuits to wrap up their statements in a jargon still more unintelligible, if possible, than that used by their predecessors. Paracelsus (1493-1541, q.v.) the mad genius, stands on the border line between visions of the past and the progressive insight of the present. Without making any very definite scientific advance, he hit by intuition on certain prinpiples that have since been verified, and he drew inquirers from the base and useless pursuit of gold into the more worthy ambition to relieve human suffering. He thus became the father of Van Helmont and of Stahl, and perhaps, we might also say, of Boyle and Bernard Palissy, whilst Francis Bacon may be classed as one of his family though not by direct descent. From them the torch of true knowledge was handed down to Priestly, Lavoisier, and Schule, and so on to the great chemical masters of the last and the present century. As a matter of fact, we have inherited little from the alchemists save their terminology, which still meets us at every turn in such words as alcohol, alkali, amalgam, arsenic, potash, laudanum, crucible, matter, affinity, precipitate, and distillation.